Leadership and Management Essay Example for Free

Leadership and Management Essay The implementation of the care of the dying policy at the writer’s area of practice involved the process of change. This involved the use of both leadership and management theories which are essential to increased effectiveness as supported by Moiden (2002). The change was a political one due to the government initiatives to improve end of life care (Department of Health 2008). Antrobus (2003) states that political leaders aim to deliver improved health care outcomes for patients. The essay will critically analyze both leadership and management theories from the top of the organization to the bottom. These theories were used to implement this change to enhance quality care in this clinical area. The essay will also critically analyze and evaluate the nurses’ self management skills in fulfilling their role as clinical managers within interdisciplinary and the changing context of the healthcare. Similarly, the essay will discuss the implications upon quality assurance and resource allocation for service delivery within the health care sector. These will be related to current government strategies. The effects of government strategies in involving the user and carer or significant others in decision making process within current clinical and legal frameworks (Department of Health 2000b) will also be debated. Similar debate will also be on the nurses’ involvement in policy making (Antrobus 2003). Further discussion on government strategies will be discussed on the introduction of clinical governance and essence of care. Braine (2006) states that the purpose of implementing change is to improve effectiveness and quality. The whole process of change was based on the introduction of the care of the dying booklet which meant that all healthcare professional documented their notes in the same booklet. The change took place in a large hospital to implement a new policy which was politically driven by the government to improve quality of care. Like most hospital organizations, the hospital traditionally uses a bureaucratic management approach (Marquis and Huston 2006) reinforced with authoritarian leadership to facilitate efficiency and cost effective care. This is done through planning, coordination, control of services, putting appropriate structures and systems in place and monitoring progress towards performance activities (Finkelman 2006 and Faugier and Woolnough 2002). According to Marquis and Huston (2006) bureaucracy was introduced after Max Weber’s work to legalize and make rules and regulations for personnel to increase efficiency. The ward manager as a change agent had to design and plan the process of change. Designing change involved understanding the purpose of change and gathering data as supported by Glower (2002). Planning included identifying driving forces and ways to reduce restraining forces (Glower 2002). Unlike the top management who used bureaucratic management theory, the ward manager applied the human relations management theory (Marquis and Huston 2006) at ward level. This management theory is designed to motivate employees to achieve excellence. The human relations theory was introduced in attempt to correct what was believed to be the shortcoming of bureaucratic theory which failed to include the human aspects (Marquis and Huston 2006). Often referred to as motivational theory, Lezon (2002) agrees that this theory views the employee in a different way and helps to understand people better compared to the autocratic management theories of the past. It is based on theory Y of Douglas McGregor’s (1960) X and Y theories cited in (Lezon 2002). Theory Y assumes that people want to work, are responsible and self motivated, they want to succeed and they understand their position in the organization. Perhaps the appropriateness of this theory can be linked to the implementation of clinical governance which emphasizes that it is the responsibility of health care professionals to ensure effectiveness, high standards and quality (Braine 2006). This puts health care professionals in a responsible position and motivates them to provide high quality care. This explains why theory Y was used as opposed to theory X which according to Lezon (2002) assumes that people are lazy, unmotivated and require discipline. According to the human relations theory, there are some positive management actions that lead to employee motivation thus improving performance (Marquis and Huston 2000). Some of these actions used by the change agent were empowering and allowing employees to make independent decisions as they could handle, training and developing, increasing freedom, sharing big picture objectives, treating employees as if work is natural and other ways of motivating staff as supported by Marquis and Huston (2006 and Lezon 2002). The use of human relations theory in the implementation of this policy is well justified in contrast to other management theories. For example, theory X presumes that people must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment (Lezon 2002). This theory adds that an average person has inherent dislike of work and prefers to avoid responsibility (Marquis and Huston 2006). In other words, theory X prefers autocratic style while theory Y prefers participative style. Managers using theory y seek to enhance the employee’s capacity to exercise high levels of imagination, ingenuity and creativity solving organizational problems. With the human relations theory, members feel special and involved rather than being controlled by threats and sanctions from the change agent (Dowding and Barr 2002). The team of health care professionals was aiming to achieve the same goal. This goal was to provide high quality care to patients approaching end of life. This involved a lot of organizational psychology and motivation to facilitate effective teamwork. Among the factors that facilitate effective teamwork, leadership is the most significant as stated by Clegg (2000). Toofany (2005) supports that leadership is on government’s modernization agenda for the National Health Service and is an influencing factor. Therefore, the change agent needed equally effective leadership style. To facilitate this, she applied the transformational leadership style. Markhan (1998) cited in Clegg (2000) defines transformational leadership style as a collaborative, consultative and consensus seeking. These are the same characteristics of the leadership style used by the change agent. Contrary to this leadership style is the transactional leadership style which is based on power of organizational position and authority to reward and punish performance (Moiden 2002). Based on Rosner (1990)’s research, Clegg (2000) states that gender affects leadership style and women prefer transformational style. Perhaps this explains why the change agent chose this style for this particular change. As in any form of change process, resistance, which falls under the unfreezing stage of Lewin’s (1951) cited in Murphy (2006) change theory is one of the common obstacles that needed to be dealt with (Curtis and White 2002). By inspiring a shared vision within the team (McGuire and Kennerly 2006) the change agent managed to increase driving forces and reduce resisting forces at the same time. Clegg (2000) values vision as a very important ingredient of transformational leadership, adding that it should be engaging and inspiring. Transformational leadership was first put forward by James Burns (1978) cited in Marquis and Huston (2006). According to him, a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation converts followers into leaders, a fact shared by Murphy (2005). If a leader can stimulate followers, he or she can engage followers into a problem solving attitude (McGuire and Kennerly 2006). In addition, people engage together in a way that allows leaders and followers to raise each other to higher levels of motivation and morality (Marquis and Huston 2006). This approach emphasizes on the leader’s ability to motivate, coach and empower the followers rather than control their behaviors (McGuire and Kennerly 2006). Moiden (2002) states that this style is widely used in all types of organizations in dealing with change. Frequently, it is contrasted with transactional leadership which is a traditional way in which followers’ commitment is gained on the basis of exchange of reward, pay and security in return of reliable work (Mullins 2002). However McGuire and Kennerly (2006) state that if transactional leadership is predominantly used, followers are likely to place limits to organizational commitment and behave in a way only aimed at contract requirements. Despite the differences in various leadership styles, most researchers conclude that there is no one leadership style that is right for all circumstances (Reynolds and Rogers 2003). Fidler (1967) cited in Moiden (2002) agrees that a single leadership style is rarely practiced. Therefore situational theories were introduced in order to deal with various situations. Perhaps this is why the leader used the situational approach to leadership in order to meet the demands of different situations, an idea also shared by Marquis and Huston (2000). Reynolds and Rogers (2003) suggest that the effectiveness of day to day activities depends on balancing between the task at hand and human relations to meet everyone’s needs. Different competence levels, motivation levels and commitment levels of staff on this clinical area justify why a situational approach was used in conjunction with transformational leadership style. Reynolds and Rogers (2003) support that situations like this require the leader to adapt their style. However, they warn that it is important to know when to lead from the front, when to empower and when to let go. This situational approach enabled the leader to work on followers’ strength and weaknesses. Moreover, Reynolds and Rogers (2003) warn that it is not always easy to find leadership styles that suite the needs of every situation and not everything falls into place from the beginning. Marquis and Huston (2000) criticize that situational theory concentrate too much on situation and focus less on interpersonal factors. Support was given to followers according their needs. Supportive behavior, as supported by Reynolds and Rogers (2003) helps people to feel comfortable in their situations. This was facilitated by the use of a two way communication system which involved listening, praising, asking for help and problem solving. Consequently, as performance improved, the leader’s supportive behavior shifted to delegation. Delegation was mostly directed to staff with high competences, commitments and motivation. Reynolds and Rogers (2003) support that the style of leadership alters as performance improves from directing to coaching to supporting to delegation. Basing on research studies, Reynolds and Rogers (2003) warns that using different approaches to different staff can practically difficult in terms of developing the whole group as well as maintaining fairness. This further exposes the limitations of situational approach. Nevertheless, it is equally important to assess followers’ capabilities and developmental needs so this explains the relevance of situational approach to this clinical area. The delegation was directed to some members of the team while others still wanted to be directed. In addition, this was because of the leader’s trust in people, working to their strength and sharing the vision as supported by Kane-Urrabazo (2006). Delegation is defined as transferring responsibility of an activity to another individual and still remain accountable (Sullivan and Decker 2005). Davidson et al (1999) caution that critical thinking and sound decision making must be applied before delegating because it increases rather than decrease nurses’ responsibility. They clarify that to ensure safe outcome, delegation must be the right task, right circumstances, right person, right instructions and right supervision. Pearce (2006) shares the same thoughts and adds that you must be clear about what you delegate, inform other members, monitor performance, give feedback and evaluate the experience while remembering that you remain accountable. However, Kane-Urrabazo (2006) and Taylor (2007) argue that delegation is another way of empowering the subordinates. However, like every team going through the process of change, problems arose and were solved as they came. Apart from dealing with problems like resistance and lack of resources, there was an even bigger problem of interdisciplinary working for both the change agent and the subordinates. Although this policy was predominantly nurse orientated, it needed authorization by a doctor in order for a patient to be commenced on care of the dying pathway. Whether inside or outside health care, interdisciplinary working was introduced with the same concerns of improving quality (Hewison 2004). Interdisciplinary working has been emphasized by a number of government initiatives (Martin 2006b), more recently the NHS Plan (Department of Health 2000a). To ensure the demand for interdisciplinary working is met, there has been a lot of emphasis on professional education and training. Effective interdisciplinary working is meant to facilitate delivery of quality services and is fundamental to success of clinical governance (Braine 2006). However, Hewison (2004) argues that there is little evidence to support the effectiveness of interdisciplinary working. There is also insufficient evidence to support that collaboration improves quality of care given to patients (Hewison 2004). Nevertheless, if interdisciplinary working is to be achieved it is important to appreciate the potential barriers to this type of working. In this particular organization there were some barriers that impeded interdisciplinary working. These barriers needed problem solving skills from both the change agent and the nurses. In many cases there were some disagreements between nurses and doctors as to when to commence the care of the dying pathway for a patient. Although the policy was self explanatory in terms of when to commence it, doctors were often reluctant to authorize it. Hewison (2004) states that occupational status, occupational knowledge, fear and distrust of other occupational groups are some of the barriers to effective interdisciplinary working. Additionally, different backgrounds, training, remuneration, culture and language can contribute to professional barriers, mistrust, misunderstanding and disagreements (Hewison 2004). To solve this problem the change agent and senior members of the medical team held regular meetings to discuss problems like this. This way of problem solving is well recommended by Hewison (2004) who explains that if interdisciplinary working is to be successful, structures and procedures should be in place to support it. This is a way in which organization reflects emphasis on teams rather than individual professional groups. Hewison (2004) adds that if this is reinforced with communication between managers and other professional groups, it is likely to be successful. Perhaps in future interdisciplinary learning may be necessary to overcome some of the barriers to interdisciplinary working. Despite lack of evidence for its effectiveness, interdisciplinary learning has been identified as a government priority (Hewison 2004). Therefore study programmes for health care professionals are important to facilitate this approach to learning.

Rise of the Merchant Class in the Middle Ages

Rise of the Merchant Class in the Middle Ages The Middle Ages, which is considered to be the time between 500 and 1500 AD gave rise to a new economic and cultural experience in Europe. The transition from the Classical Age to the Renaissance was a process of evolution. After the barbarian invasions of Europe during the fourth and fifth centuries by the Anglos, Saxons, Goths, and Huns, the great Roman Empire declined. It was only starting in the eighth century that Europe slowly began its cultural, as well as economic, recovery. Politically, several new states emerged starting in the year 900, including the consolidated Scandinavian states under King Sweyn of Denmark; the creation of a Hungarian state; and the states of Bohemia and Poland. These states were very stable monarchies, which helped widen commercial exchange between one another. The Scandinavians traded extensively with the east, the Mediterranean countries, and with Russia. The end of various civil wars in Europe helped countries like Italy make a name for themselves in trade with the Mediterranean. Pisa, Genoa, and Amalfi, were all major commercial hubs. Germany and northern Europe were also able to make use of trade routes to the Mediterranean through Italy and France. Another result of the more settled Europe was the revival of agriculture, which was further stimulated by commercial expansion due to the growing exchange economy. Many cities began expanding, creating the demand for larger amounts of agricultural produce. As a result, previously unproductive lands in countries such as France and Germany were converted to fertile farms, rich with grazing herds. Nobleman with large pieces of uncultivated land offered these lands to peasants for cultivation in return for which they collected payment or rent. This was the beginning of the feudal system in Europe. Under the feudal system, kings gave nobleman large grants of land in exchange for soldiers. In exchange for fighting, the soldiers were given gifts of jewels, horses, and sometimes land, in territories that had been newly conquered, called fiefs. These vassals, or servants to the king had authority over the peasants, called the serfs, who worked on their land. The vassals became powerful local rulers who made their own laws, which the workers on their land were required to obey. Economic progress stimulated by this system gave rise to new towns and a rise in population in areas that were previously unsettled. The rapid increase in population due to the economic revolution resulted in a shortage of land. However, instead of causing a problem, farming and land cultivation techniques improved so that land could be used more efficiently. This also shifted quite an amount of the population away from farming jobs, and into jobs in towns and cities. By the 1100s, these hard working urban citizens formed the middle class and were enterprising, ambitious, and contributed to the success of an early form of capitalism. This medieval capitalism is often referred to as the birth of capitalism. Contributing to the development of the European intellectual, religious, and moral recovery was the setting up of new monasteries, since the church had also suffered due to the numerous invasions in the past. The more settled political climate helped bring back the influence of the church. A few of the great noblemen founded new reformed monastic houses that were more inclusive including the famous abbey of Einsiedeln, the monastic school of St. Emmereram, and the Episcopal school of Bamberg. This reformation of the monasteries broke down regional differences and revived discipline as well as literary and artistic life. The feudal ideas of lordship extended even to the monasteries, as in the case of the abbot of Cluny who was the head of all monasteries founded or reformed by his order. Even though there was much political, economic, and religious progress, new problems were created by all this development. Consolidation of kingdoms created complications for German, Italian, Hungarian, and Polish rulers. In Germany, the economic recovery caused tension between the aristocracy, which was only interested in profiting as much as possible from the revived economy, and the government. In Italy, it led to antagonism between the knights, and their feudal lords, or bishops. However, the social revolution between the knights and the bishops gave rise to powerful new classes that strived to better their positions, leading to nobles and non-nobles. In spite of all of these tensions, people still had jobs to support the growing population in cities and towns. Any commodity that was unavailable in individual fiefdoms, was obtained by barter. Artisans made farm implements, dishes, and clothing, which they exchanged for the grain, wine, and meat produced on the farms. Beginning in the tenth century, a new class of trading people emerged, referred to as peddlers. Peddlers traveled from town to town, supplying the nobility and the peasants with the products they needed. The areas frequently visited by them quickly developed into towns, which emerged as major centers of trade and attracted many merchants who supplied the prospering nobility. As the nobility got wealthier, they were able to afford gems, silks, exotic spices, and other symbols of wealth. The merchants who previously went from town to town, were now traveling to foreign locations such as Egypt, Morrocco, and Turkey. The activities of the traders permanently altered the f ace of European society, leading to a commercial revolution, which was essentially the shift of power from the landlords and nobility to the merchants. Concentration of wealth in emerging cities such as Florence, Venice, London, and Paris attracted merchants worldwide. By the tenth century, extensive trade routes had been established connecting Britain, the European continent, the Middle East, and North Africa, by river and by sea. Asia and the Middle East had several excellent overland trade routes. For instance, the four thousand mile long Silk Road led out of China all the way to the Black Sea in Eastern Europe, through Persia, Afghanistan, and India. Germanys Hanseatic League saved traders time with their larger ships that carried wine and salt to the East in exchange for the grain and timber they bought back. Some traders and merchants began plying the sea routes in search of more goods and profits. Due to its location between the East and Europe, Italy was a vital trading country. Merchants from Venice traded with those from the Byzantine Empire through Turkey, and merchants from Pisa and Genoa traded with cities in North Africa. They brought back African gold and ivory, precious stones, silks, perfumes, and spices from Persia and India, Turkish carpets, Persian ceramics, and Syrian glass and metalwork, all of which commanded high prices in Europe. In the eleventh century, local merchants primarily sold their goods in weekly markets. A network of weekly markets was one of the main components of the booming economic progress that swept across Europe in the Middle Ages. These markets spurred the creation of money, and harbored huge amounts of wealth to the merchants. Fairs, which lasted for weeks and were held at crossroads of important trade routes, were another means by which well-established merchants bought and sold goods. Some of the most important trading fairs included the 12-day cloth fair and the 8-day leather fair, both held in Champagne, France. Since fairs and markets could easily be ruined by undesirable weather conditions, some traders eventually came up with ways to make profits without ever leaving their homes. Using credit, they bought and sold goods through agents at various fairs, giving rise to a form of banking. This contributed to a free flow of money, which enriched the lives of people in all classes of society. This increase in wealth helped patronize artisans, goldsmiths, and retailers. The towns that expanded around the fair sites attracted business and brought about the standardization of currency, weights and measures. The merchant class largely populated the new towns that sprang up, and influenced the economy and social life of their societies. The towns attracted specialists such as grocers, spice merchants, cobblers, apothecaries, and goldsmiths who formed unions called guilds. These guilds set the prices for the goods they produced, as they were the only ones in the area creating this product in the area. Therefore the citizens in this area were willing to pay whatever price they charged. Their control over these prices led to much of their control over the economy. Additionally, they effected and influenced social life with the elaborate feasts and celebrations they held for religious services, holidays, and similar events. With the increase of merchant activities and the rise of the merchant class, it became necessary for them to learn to read, write, do arithmetic, and have a general knowledge of foreign affairs. Local governments and scholars, both of which profited from teaching the children of these merchants, set up schools to take care of the demand for education. The success of the schools in turn, led to the establishment of universities, so that people were able to continue their education if they desired. Some of these universities include Oxford, Cambridge, Chartres, Reims, and the University of Paris. The rising importance of schools broke the monopoly that the church previously had in the area of education. Since merchants made great profits from buying and selling goods, they were considered sinners by the church, because they enriched themselves rather than working for common good. The fear of hell was very real and the church often confiscated merchant estates. To avoid this, merchants began contributing some of the wealth they made to monasteries and churches, and providing funds to charitable causes including hospitals and homes for those without shelter. The rise of the merchant class gained them access to high society and some became famous patrons of the arts, constructing concert halls, churches, and other cultural centers. These merchants spread wealth and culture to the masses and assisted in dissolving the previously existing social structure by creating a society where even a peasant was able to rise in wealth and status. Merchants that joined the ranks of nobility further strengthened their position in society by patronizing the arts even more. They hired artists, musicians, and writers to produce works that still live on today, including works of art such as Madonna and Child, Nativity, and the Wise Man, by renowned artists such as Michaelangelo, Botticelli, and Leonardo Da Vinci. Some of the extremely successful merchants, known as the merchant princes, sometimes became so powerful they controlled their countries wealth. The Medicis, a family of bankers that lived Italy, are an example of such powerful and successful merchants. As a result of this patronage of the arts, many architectural and artistic gems were produced during this time. Some of the buildings built during the Middle Ages using the Gothic or Romanesque styles used such advanced techniques that these buildings are still existent today. The Chartres cathedral, the Laon Cathedral, and St. Denis, all in France for instance, represent the quality of the churches, houses, and castles built during that time. Also produced during the Middle Ages was some beautiful art work that is often overlooked, including jewelry, pottery, metalwork, carved woodwork, sculptures, and illustrated manuscripts. Most of the art work was created in the setting of the church, such as murals of Biblical stories, chalices, shrines, reliquaries, and statues of angels and saints. The rise of the merchant class also made portraits very popular, along with intricate work for personal use such as woven tapestries, decorated manuscripts, tableware, jewelry, and carved furniture . Inventions and technology during the Middle Ages were in the form of a gradual improvement in the way things were done, rather than a series of dramatic discoveries. It took place in the form of a gradual shift away from mass slavery, the use of wind power, of open fields in agriculture, the use of the wheelbarrow, double entry book-keeping, and finally the use of firearms and printing. The windlass, a rope around a barrel which turned using a crank, was used to lift heavy loads. Water mills and windmills were used to power all kinds of machinery. For instance, a hammer driven by a mill was used in fulling cloth, which is a method of cleaning fabric used in textile production. A new kind of loom was introduced as well as the invention of the spinning wheel, which greatly reduced the time taken to weave cloth, and produce new fabrics. The secrets of producing silk were passed on from Greece to other parts of Europe. Papermaking was brought back from China, greatly reducing the cost an d time to write and produce books. The growth and progress of the European civilization in the middle ages was largely due to the rise of the merchant class. With their ambition and hard work, they paved the way for modern times. Under their leadership, Europe enjoyed a prosperity not known since the Roman Empire. When Europe emerged from the Middle Ages, it had attained a level of sophistication in its universities, literature, art, learning, science and technology, that were unmatched in the world. Significant advances were made in the areas of tenant farming, harnessing the horse to the plough, cloth making, iron working, ship building and navigation. This technical progress would not have amounted to much if it had not been coupled with the intellectual tools that the businessmen of that time used to manage his business and observe and measure fluctuations in the economy. The world of trade had to perfect various systems: from dealing with rates of exchange for goods and services outside their towns or even countr ies, establishing credit procedures, legal bases in keeping with the times, and methods for monitoring and balancing their accounts. All of these eventually became the foundation for our modern system of economic relations. Although it is often ignored in history, the Middle Ages saw the birth of a new cultural experience in Europe, which eventually led to the Renaissance. The cultural heritage of the Middle Ages is still apparent in architecture, art, education, science and technology, that have survived the test of time. Bibliography: Gold and Spices: The Rise of Commerce in the Middle Ages, Jean Favier The Medieval Merchant, Stuart A. Kallen The Middle Ages, Giovanni Caselli The Late Middle Ages, Raintree Steck-Vaughn Library The Medieval World, Mike Corbishley Life During the Middle Ages, Earle Rice, Jr.

The Church And Apartheid In South Africa Religion Essay

The Church And Apartheid In South Africa Religion Essay What started as an antecedent social forms grounded in colonial history resulted with the outcome of Apartheid which in turn affected the South African Church and its history. Apartheid is the state which jeopardize the social edifice of the Church as it brought much segregation, which led to many critics of apartheid blaming the Church for its existence, they have claimed that racial oppression in South Africa is the fruit of Christianity according to Hexham in his work journal: The Journal of Theology for Southern Africa This subject although has for a very long time been seen as ethical challenge to Christian theology, one cannot ignore it but can be used a case study which will ventures us to reflect what it mean to be one in Jesus Christ within our South African Christian Theology context. It is for this reason that in this assignment I endeavour to highlight some of the s Beginning of National Party Acceding to power in 1948, the National Party has kept a tight grip on the reins of government ever since till the reign was taken by ANC in 1994. According to Dr Verkuyl, the National Party had desired to develop a racial caste system in which each non-white is granted limited freedom of movement but only on the basis of a white monopoly of power and subordinated to the interests of the whites. It was in this period that race relations remained the key issue, there was increase in various measure of racial segregation and it was in this time that black consciousness and active protest became a starker reality. Therefore it was through this Party that the ideology of apartheid became the blueprint for South African society. World Council of Churches It was an amazement that the creation of the World Council of Churches (WCC) in 1948 at Amsterdam led to new phase in the ecumenical relations not only in South Africa but also globally. This raised high hope that any divisions in the Church of Christ would be healed and there would be restoration in relations of the church. South African churches welcome this phase and most of churches in South Africa joined WCC and were spontaneous and cordial in their participation. These churches included the Anglicans; Presbyterians; Methodists; the NG Churches of Cape Town and the Transvaal, and the Nederduits Hervomde Kerk in Afrika. South African delegates were sent to WCC Amsterdam in 1948 and again in 1954 to Evanston. Alan Paton of Anglican Church and Ben Marais of NG Church served in the fourteen-man commission on Church and race. These men had to conduct a study and submit a report at Evanston Conference. Marais, being one of the selected speakers in the session to represent the submission of this major report at the conference. Several South African church leaders like CB Brink, Bishop Ambrose Reeves and WA Landman play crucial roles and were actively involved in the activities of WCC. CB Brink also served in the Central committee of WCC along with other South African church leaders. The ecumenical contact built on these years had a great effects in South African and various conferences and talks between local church leaders were arranged to discuss matters of mutual concern. Many South African students received bursaries from WCC to study in America and Europe. However, it was after the discussion of race relations and decision taken at the Evanston that uncertainties grew especially from the Afrikaans member churches. Cottesloe Consultation In 1960 the Church engaged itself in Cottesloe talks. It was through Cottesloe consultation that delegates were brought together from the World Council of Churches member churches in South Africa and outside the country and ecumenical institution as start of start of the partners fighting the church struggle in South Africa. In these talks, the race issue and Churchs role were put under the spotlight. After many days of these talks, decisions were taken which all member churches agreed to, except the Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk van Afrika which stood in disagreement with these decisions. The Cottesloe findings brought so much tension and emotions since the churches were now thrust into the midst of political stresses of the country and media had these talks as their headlines zooming more on the churches reactions. This led in some churches resigning from WCC, especially the Afrikaans Reformed churches, while the English speaking churches retained the membership in support of freedom fighters. Churches which resigned from the WCC opened Christian Institute in August 1963 in order to continue their dialogue with churches oversees. This institute provided a useful channel for communication involving people from different race and denominations. However this institute became a victim of political target and thereby lost most of its supporters. Publication: Message to the people of South Africa This publication was formulated in 1968. It focused on South African Council of Churches as spotlight and was the result of significant conference of the WCC held in Geneva in 1966 on the subject: Church and Society. Theological committee was appointed so they can consider what obedience to God requires of the Church in her witness to her unity in Christ in South Africa. This committee had to issue the message to the Country. The purpose of the document was to demonstrate the basic incompatibility of apartheid with the gospel of Jesus Christ. This document also appealed to Christians in South Africa to give their obedience and their loyalty to Jesus Christ. The document was sent to every minister in the country of which 600 showed the positive response and support and all the member churches of SACC subscribed to it. This led SACC being a target for attacks from different sides. SPROCAS The Study Project on Christianity in Apartheid Society (SPRO-CAS) was established in mid-1969 by the South African Council of Churches and the Christian Institute of Southern Africa. This document was founded after the chasm between the South African Council of Churches and Afrikaans-speaking churches grew wider, the South African Council of churches being attacked on every side. Included in this document were the six commissions and a diverse set of over 140 commissioners and consultants, which had its focused on the need for change in South Africa, examining economics, education, law, politics, sociology and the Church. The project not only played a critical role in thinking within the South African churches about how to overcome apartheid but also marks a critical stage in the birth of the Black Consciousness Movement. The projects publications had to be submitted to South Africas Publication Control Board for censorship. Plans had to be adjusted when several of the writers, including Biko, Desmond, and Turner, were issued with banning orders prohibiting them from being quoted in any publication. Despite such difficulties the project had significant impact on political developments leading up to the Soweto student uprising in 1976. Soweto Uprising The stained situation acquire a fresh dimension with Soweto riots in 1976, when the black youth stood their ground against states educational policy and the existence of certain laws which had broken up homes, families and the ordinary life. The youth were dissatisfied, and they were no willing to accept these situations which they found themselves in. It was through this stand that Soweto gradually became the national symbol of a new generation of nationally and politically black people awareness in our country. Black Churches Each of these departures from Christianity, the Ethiopian and the Zionist, dates from the beginning of previous century. The foundation of Ethiopian churches was the less drastic, as they content to break the shackles of white dominance while retaining the form of organization, mode of worship and denominational identity of the parent body, for example African Methodist and African Congregational. Nonetheless, it stemmed directly from the practice of an undeclared apartheid where it was least expected, from an insistence on segregation and white superiority on the part of missionaries. These churches were African replicas of Christian denominations and were an explicit response to racial inequality. Reformation Day Witness In 1980 October 31, the Reformation Day Witness was published. It consisted eight eminent NG theologians. This publication dealt with , according to Pillay Hoymeyer(1994:296) the Churchs inabilities to fulfil the mission of reconciliation and to prevent polarisation and to provide the authorities with an unambiguous witness. The witness was publish during the period of rapid changes in South Africa where transition led to new social and political dispensation. The witness contributed in bringing the greater willingness and openness towards the continuing dialogue and it rose the prophetic voice of NG Church so loud and clear. In the same year in November, the appeared collections of essays entitled Stomkompas, which was composed by NG theologians which had their views. This Stomkompas had dominating the widely accepted traditional Afrikaner view on relations between people, which was biblically justified since the forties. Broederiking was also another group emerged from NG church. It was a group of young NG churches. They aimed at working towards greater unity among the NG churches at a local level, to render younger churches less financial dependency on the mother church and to give moral support to these churches. In 1982, Belhar announced a status of confessions on apartheid condemning it as a heresy.This was regarded as a protest by the church against a political dispensation as it proclaimed the threat brought by apartheid to the churchs creed. It during this time that the Churh in SA were arranged by committe of every theological society in SA. Tension rose between the government and certain churches in the 80s Kairos Document The Kairos Document (KD) is a statement within the background of theology issued in 1985 by a group of black South African theologians based predominantly in the black community of Soweto. The statement challenged the churches response to what the authors saw as the vicious policies of the Apartheid state under the state of emergency declared on 21 July 1985. In July 1985 the iron fist of the first state of emergency came down hard upon the people of South Africas townships. Many were killed, injured, maimed for life or locked up in detention. The KD evoked strong reactions and furious debates not only in South Africa, but world-wide. The KD was compiled in five chapters: The Moment of Truth; Critique of State Theology; Critique of Church Theology Towards a Prophetic Theology; Challenge to Action; and a short conclusion. The document was addressed to the divided churches; divided, that is, due to the roles that Christians within the churches play in the conflict between the racist minority government and the black majority population. The KD document contended against apartheid system using the comparison from the book of Romans, Revelation and even Acts; it presented this system as unjustly ad not lawful. In time where discord was in place, this document really served as a challenge to many ministers and church members of different churches to reflect once again where they stand. The period of 1990 onwards Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela has been in prison for over a quarter of a century since August 5, 1962 for leadership of his people in the struggle against racist oppression and for a non-racial democratic society. Prison bars could not prevent him from continuing to inspire his people to struggle and sacrifice for their liberation. Public opinion polls have again and again shown that he is the most popular leader in the country. He has, indeed, grown in stature. As the Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group observed in 1986, he has become a living legend, galvanising the resistance in the country. The London Times described him as the colossus of African nationalism in South Africa. It was in after the 1990 that there seem to be a break of segregation, and thank to all the church who participated in the struggle of this liberation. In 1994 was the beginning of new things for the nation of South Africa. Conclusion The story of the Christian Churches in South Africa, like the story of South African society in general is the story of many tribes, whose histories are on the one hand interwoven and interconnected and helps us not make the same mistake as the church of segregation, it help us to strive to a bridge gap to any discord, instead of being a wall standing in the gap for God to move in our country. With such richful history, we are collaped to higher height, even teaching the future theologian of way forward because eventually we had conquered APARTHED.

Just Breathing Essay -- essays research papers

Just Breathing Ill-timed encounters with torment and death will always leave one behind as a reflective and thought full individual. â€Å"Just Breathing†, which was published in 1997 in the book â€Å"Sex, Drugs, Rock’n’Roll: Stories to end the centuryâ€Å", deals with a woman who feels, that she has changed after a strange meeting with the woman Magde. This essay contains an analysis and an interpretation of Nina and the function Madge has in Nina’s life. The story begins quite sudden because the reader is practically thrown into the story and the characters aren’t introduced. If you take a look at the verbs in the first three lines you will see that most of them are written in past tense. Therefore you can see that the narrator is looking back on the story of Nina. It’s unclear whether or not the narrator knows Nina, but by examining the text furtherer it becomes more and more obvious that it is a narrator who is present in the short story. From time to time while telling the story the narrator interrupts Nina to comment on the thoughts and actions of her, â€Å"Line 6, p 1 [why did illness never strike in term time?]† and â€Å"Line 101, p 4[buying twenty Benson & Hedges. (Twenty!)]†. In this short story Diana Hendry uses interior monologues to show the emotionally affected woman, Nina, and her life after a close encounter with death. Nina is a middle-aged woman who has taught English Literature for 15 years and she is married to Tom. After a serious asthma attack Nina is back at home...

Thailand Essay -- Information History Culture Customs Papers

Thailand The topic that I will be discussing is Thai culture. In this, it will include areas that influence this culture. First, I will give you the geographical information of the country of Thailand. The second area that I will look at will be language. Language is an extremely important part of culture and some say that one cannot be found without the other. After that I will inform you about customs, traditions and taboos in Thai culture. This is a very important part of culture and is what shows the differences between cultures. Then I briefly tell you about the government and some national symbols, such as the flag, the symbol, colors, anthem, dress, and national day. Next, I will explain about religion in Thailand. In most cultures there is religion, but in Thailand it is interwoven into its whole culture and it is hard to separate the two. One other thing that I will include in this paper is a link to a page with pictures from my trip to Thailand. National Standards for Geography I believe that I applied six out of the eighteen National Standards to this paper. The first two standards were under a section called "Seeking the World in Spatial Terms." When you look under this, the first I used was "knows and understands how to use maps, globes and other graphical tools to acquire, process and report information." The second standard was "Uses mental maps to give spatial perspective to the world." Then the second section is called "Places and Region." Under this section it says "Knows and understands the physical and human characteristics of places." The next section is called "physical systems" and I used only one standard in this one. This standard says that one "Knows and understands that physical pro... ...c.th/thai/thai.html (9 Apr 1999) 5. Ronnakiat, Nantana. "The Thai Writing System." Apr 5, 1997 http://thaiarc.tu.ac.th/thaiwrt.html (9 Apr 1999) 6. National Identity Office Under the Prime Minister, Royal Thai Government. "Thailand at a Glance." 28 February 1997 http://www.mahidol.ac.th/thailand/glance-thai/thailand.html (11 Apr 1999) 7. Tourism Authority of Thailand. "Environment" Welcome to the Land of Smiles. 1997. http://www.tat.or.th/about/index.html (9 Apr 1999) 8. Tourism Authority of Thailand. "Religion." Welcome to the Land of Smiles. 1997. http://www.tat.or.th/about/religion.html (9 Apr 1999) 9. Vongvipanond, Peansiri. "Linguistic Perspectives of Thai Culture." Thai Culture in Language. 11/11/98 http://thaiarc.tu.ac.th/thai/peasiri.thml (9 Apr 1999) to Lesson Plans and Research Papers 1999

Bodegas Caballe – an International Recruitment Excersise

Case Study 2: Bodegas Caballe – An International Recruitment Exercise Bodegas Caballe – An International Recruitment Exercise Dear Mr. Caballe, Dear Bodegas Caballe Selection Committee, First of all we would like to thank you for putting trustfulness in our work as newcomers in your company Bodegas Caballe. After considering the commissioning letter and the four reports we have analysed them carefully to make a reasonable choice, who is the most suitable applicant. We established the following criteria to select the best applicant for your company: Nationality, marital status, current employer and position, reason for leaving, expected salary, educational background, language skills, professional background, further information and interview assessment. We have ranked each applicant from 1 to 4 in all criteria. On top of that we have evaluated the importance of each criterion for your company. Based on this we have multiplied the ranking with the quantifier. So in the end the best possible result is 1, while 4 is the worst case. In the following section you will find the explanations for the weighting of the criteria. We evaluated the nationality and the marital status as least important, because these criteria have no significance about an applicant’s qualities. The criterion â€Å"Reason for leaving† has more importance, due to the fact that based on this point general working attitudes can be assessed early and possible problems in business relationships can be foreseen. However this should not be the most decisive factor in comparison to other criteria. Your company proposes a yearly salary of $45000 – $60000. Therefore we quantified this criterion less important, because no applicant exceeds this limit significantly. The educational background has more relevance because it offers a first sight on the applicant’s knowledge. Hence, this criterion has middle weight importance for the assessment of the applicants. The further given information and the applicants’ interview outcome are of equal importance, because they indicate more information about the applicants’ personalities and characteristics. The language skills are of crucial importance. In consequence of your expansion to Central Europe and especially Poland, we expect good communication qualities in English and Polish. The current employer and position of the applicant is weighted as a significant factor. With the aid of this information you can tell if the applicants are able to represent the company and if they have sufficient abilities in the fields of coordination and management. The most essential criterion is â€Å"Professional background†. It describes working experience, market knowledge and external relationships that are of high relevance for the applicant’s position at Bodegas Caballe. Ranking chart The chart below shows the above mentioned criteria and their weighting-quantifier. Furthermore you can see the applicants ranking for each criterion in detail. The lowest row â€Å"Total result† shows the overall ranking. Criterion |Quantifier |Boleslaw |Maria |Sergei |Stanislaw | |Nationality |2,50% |1 |2 |4 |3 | |Marital status |2,50% |4 |2 |3 |1 | |Employer & position |15,00% |2 |4 |3 |1 | |Reason for leaving |5,00% |4 |2 |3 |1 | |Salary |7,50% |4 |2 |1 |3 | |Education |10,00% |3 |2 |1 |4 | |Language skills 12,50% |1 |2 |3 |4 | |Professional background |25,00% |4 |2 |3 |1 | |Further information |10,00% |3 |2 |4 |1 | |Interview assessment |10,00% |1 |3 |4 |2 | |Total result |100,00% |2,75 |2,4 |2,875 |1,975 | Discussion of applicants The results of our assessment show a great tendency towards Stanislaw Michalski. Maria de la Garriga is ranked second with an average score of 2. 4. The third position is held by Boleslaw Piasecki with a total result of 2. 75. The least qualified applicant with a score of 2. 875 is Sergei Nikitin. In the following sections each applicant will be discussed separately. We have an overall negative impression of Sergei Nikitin. He seems to be very dissatisfied with his current employer and showed unsuitable behaviour during the interview. Although he has a good educational background and experience as a sales representative that should qualify him to realize the expansion plans in Central Europe, his company does not want him as the manager of the sales team. So there must be a reason in his attitude or work that makes him less suitable for such an important position. He has the lowest expectations of salary with $45000, however his plans to move to the United States and his American working mentality do not fit into your company. Furthermore, his language skills are not optimal for a position in Central Europe and Poland. The third ranked applicant Boleslaw Piasecki has the best language skills among the four applicants and he made a good impression during the interview your company held with him. His current employer Torum Hotel and Restaurant and his position as the Manager of Catering Services and Purchasing seem to be rather fitting for Bodegas Caballe at first sight. But his rankings in the other criteria are mostly 3s and 4s. His reason for leaving indicates that he has very high expectations of compensations from his company. Therefore he wants to earn $65000 per year, which is above your limit of $60000. On top of that he demands commission, car and expenses from Bodegas Caballe. Especially his previous education and professional background as a priest and Ph. D. in history do not lead to choosing him, because it is rather unusual for the business world. The further information given on Boleslaw shows that he has overbearing manners and irregular working attitude. Maria de la Garriga is ranked second in almost every criterion, which would be a generally good choice. Her experience and position at the University of Cracow show that she did not work in the sales of wine and spirits for the last 10 years. But during the interview she made clear that she wants move into selling, because she is tired of the academic world. Her nervousness and little signs of arrogance appear as character weaknesses that may result in problems when entering a new market and establishing business relationships. Apart from that she has good qualities in various fields. She is capable of leading projects and has achieved great management skills in her position. For example she provided other universities with training programs. Her language skills of Spanish, Russian, English and Polish and her degree in Foreign Literature and Languages are suitable for the central European region. She expects a salary of $55000 per year, which is in your proposed range of $45000 – $60000. Moreover, she established good contacts with major retailers during her activities at the University. As stated above our preferred applicant for the position as the Sales Representative is Stanislaw Michalski. Although his educational background (High-school leaving certificate) as well as his language skills are not impressive, he has reached a high position on the career ladder and seems to enjoy a quite good reputation in the market. He started with merchandising, stocking and ordering, moved into buying as Assistant Buyer and is currently the Head Buyer of alcoholic beverages. This implicates that he has been always loyal towards his company. His reason for leaving Intersection Hypermarkets is perfect for Bodegas Caballe. He wants to move to Poland together with his wife and his four kids, which indicates that family is of high importance for him. His expected salary of $60000 for this position is also your proposed limit, which should definitely not be a reason for refusal. The extended information you provided on Stanislaw makes a great impression of his character and personality. He is involved into different cultural, ethic and public organisations, which shows that he can take over responsibility and reliability. He has great knowledge of and interest in Poland, so he will have no problems communicating and working in Poland. The evaluations and recommendations stated above should only be regarded as an advice for your final decision. Depending on how the different criteria are weighted, some deviations may occur. Nevertheless we think that either Stanislaw Michalski or Maria de la Garriga are the most suitable applicants for your company and the position offered, because both applicants convince due to their skills and attitude.

Peplau’s Contribution to the Advancement of Nursing Knowledge Essay

Peplau’s Contribution to the Advancement of Nursing Knowledge in Support of Multidisciplinary Science Nursing is still a young profession that is still evolving. It is still developing its theoretical support for the nursing practice and how its discipline is unique from other disciplines (Johnson, B. & Webber, and P.). Many of the nursing theorists have drawn from other disciplines (psychology, sociology etc.) in forming their nursing theories. Hildegard Peplau is one of those theorists who used another discipline in formulation of her Interpersonal Relations in Nursing Theory. In this paper, I will describe her career development and how she contributed to nursing’s body of knowledge, showing her support of multidisciplinary science. I will also describe how her theory has been adopted within the nursing field by reporting the results of a current literature review. Peplau’s Career and How She Contributed to Nursing’s Body of Knowledge It is important to know Peplau’s nursing education in order to understand how she came to think and perceive the nursing profession, its practice and theory, particularly with an influence from the science of psychology. Peplau entered the nursing profession after earning a diploma in nursing at a hospital in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. She took a variety of nursing positions and within a few years, she earned her Baccalaureate Degree in Psychology. It was then that Peplau really began to form her ideas about psychiatric nursing and the nursing profession (Holden, 2002). She worked in psychiatric nursing afterwards and was greatly influenced from working with Eric and Frieda Fromm, who were highly influential and successful psychologists at that time. She was also in contact with and influenced by Harry Stack Sullivan. During World War II she stationed in London at a neuropsychiatric center. While she was there she had conversations with many significant people in psychiatry. During her shifts, the psychiatrists would discuss their cases and it became an extension of her psychiatric course work from her Bachelor Degree in Psychology (Holden, 2002)Afterwards, over several years, Peplau earned her Masters and Doctorate Degrees at Teacher’s College at Columbia University and her Doctorate in Education (Parker & Smith, 2010). She was also certified in psychoanalysis by the William Alanson White Institute of New York City, in the early 1950’s. In her career she not only developed the Interpersonal Relation  Theory of Nursing but developed several graduate psychiatric nursing programs (Holden, 2002). Hildegard Peplau received special recognition by the ANA Council of Advanced Practitioners in Psychiatric/ Mental Health Nursing. Because of her extensive education and exposure to the science of psychology (and some of its finest professional member’s), she was able to pave the way for psychiatric nursing within the nursing profession. Up until her influence, it was the nurse’s responsibility to simply administer the medication the psychiatrists ordered and assist the patient with basic health care as needed. Peplau’s Support of Multidisciplinary Sciences in the Field of Nursing It is obvious that Peplau’s development of the Interpersonal Relations in Nursing Theory also was birthed out of her psychology/psychiatry education and experience. It was her goal to bring psychiatric nursing to more that nurses giving medication and caring for basic physical needs. She was the mother of psychiatric nursing. She paved the way for nurses to practice psychotherapy by first training them to â€Å"talk to patients†. Her theory was greatly influenced by Sullivan’s Interpersonal Theory. Sullivan was the first American psychiatrist to develop a Comprehensive Personality Theory and saw psychiatric problems as being developed from bad interpersonal relationships. (Slide show site). Peplau also utilized the discipline of â€Å"education† to further her development and promotion of the Interpersonal Relations Theory. She also utilized it to train other’s in more advanced ways of practicing as psychiatric nursing (Holden, 2002). Peplau did not only show her approval of using the multidiscipline sciences in nursing by utilizing them in her practice and teaching, but she taught that this was the best practice to do in the field of nursing. In an interview that was done in 1999 she was questioned on the use of other disciplines by nursing and was it acceptable for nurses to practice using someone else’s knowledge. She answered by first saying that she promoted scientific research in neuropsychiatry, genetics and biochemistry and had served on government committees regarding them. She believed that it was important for nurses to continue to study and know about human beings biologically and about their existence in the environment (Spray, 1999). She confirmed that she always supported the development of all social sciences. She hoped that â€Å"the  basics of science (neuroscience, biology, and brain research) and the social sciences (the psychosocial humanistic piece), that is, the connections and the integrations of these, will be identified and formulated â€Å" (Spray, 1999). In saying that she validated the use of all knowledge, coming together so as to serve nursing in becoming its best. The writer believes, with many others, that Hildegard Peplau was a great pioneer in the nursing profession and not only supported multidiscipline of sciences for use in nursing but exemplified it wonderfully. Literature Review on Peplau’s Theory of Interpersonal Relations Theory of Nursing A literary review, using the subject for research as â€Å"Peplau’s Interpersonal Relations Theory of Nursing† was done using ProQuest’s website for peer-reviewed literary articles. The result is that the subject was discussed in 95 peer reviewed journals and two trade journals. Using Google Books a research was done using the same. There were too many books, including psychiatric text books by Brunner and Saddarth and Lippincott, which included a full description on Peplau and her founding nursing theory. It is quite obvious that her theory has been adopted by nursing profession. She has been called the â€Å"mother of psychiatric nursing† (Holden, 2002). References Gregg, D. (1999, Jul-Sep ). Hildegard E. Peplau: Her contributions. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 35(3), 10-12. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/200788729?accountid=34574 Holden, M. (2002, Nov.). Hildegard Peplau: Psychiatric Nurse of the Century. Military Medicine, 167(12), 111. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/217052138?accountid=34574 Parker, M. (2010). Nursing Theories and Nursing Practice. Philadelphia, PA, United States of America: FA Davis. Spray, S. L. ( 1999, Jul-Sep ). The evolution of the psychiatric clinical nurse specialist: An interview with Hildegard E. Peplau. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 35(3), 27-37. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/200788948?accountid=34574